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外语 · 语法精讲
概念
语法是语言的组织规则,分两块:词法(词的形态变化:复数、时态、比较级)和句法(词如何组合成句)。
学语法的目的只有一个:把一个长句还原成"谁 对 谁 做了 什么 什么时候"。凡是不能服务于这个目的的语法点,学到能认出即可,不必背规则条文。
原理
一、五种基本句型:所有句子的骨架
英语句子无论多长,骨架都跑不出这五种:
| 句型 | 结构 | 例 |
|---|---|---|
| S + V | 主 + 不及物动词 | The server crashed. |
| S + V + O | 主 + 及物动词 + 宾 | We restarted the server. |
| S + V + C | 主 + 系动词 + 表语 | The result was inconclusive. |
| S + V + O + O | 主 + 动词 + 间接宾 + 直接宾 | The system gave us an error. |
| S + V + O + C | 主 + 动词 + 宾 + 宾补 | We found the log misleading. |
长句 = 基本句型 + 修饰成分。所以读长句的第一步永远是"找出它属于哪一种句型"。
系动词(S+V+C)不止 be:become / seem / appear / remain / stay / turn / grow / prove 都能带表语。
二、时态:两个维度交叉,不是 16 条规则
时态的维度其实只有两个:时间(现在 / 过去 / 将来 / 过去将来)× 体(一般 / 进行 / 完成 / 完成进行)。
| 一般 | 进行 | 完成 | 完成进行 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 现在 | do / does | am/is/are doing | have/has done | have/has been doing |
| 过去 | did | was/were doing | had done | had been doing |
| 将来 | will do | will be doing | will have done | will have been doing |
| 过去将来 | would do | would be doing | would have done | would have been doing |
理解要点:
- 一般时=陈述事实或习惯;进行时=某刻正在持续;完成时=到某时间点已完成的影响;完成进行=从过去持续到现在且仍在继续
- 完成时强调的是"影响"而非"完成":
I have lost my key.(现在进不了门)≠I lost my key.(只陈述过去的事)
三、语态与语气
语态:主动(强调执行者)/被动(强调承受者或施动者不明)。be + 过去分词,各时态的被动只变 be。
语气分三种:陈述、祈使、虚拟。虚拟语气的核心是"与事实相反",三型必记:
| 类型 | 从句 | 主句 |
|---|---|---|
| 与现在事实相反 | if + 过去式(be 用 were) | would/could/might + do |
| 与过去事实相反 | if + had done | would/could/might + have done |
| 与将来事实相反 | if + were to do / should do | would/could/might + do |
其他虚拟触发词:wish(wish I had known)、suggest/demand/insist/require(后接 should do,should 可省)、It is necessary that … (should) do、as if / as though、lest / for fear that。
四、三大从句:怎么判断、怎么选连接词
| 从句 | 在句中充当 | 判断法 | 连接词 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 名词性从句 | 主/宾/表/同位语 | 把从句整体替换成 "it" 或 "something",句子仍通顺 | that / whether / if / what / who / how / why / when / where |
| 定语从句 | 修饰名词 | 从句紧跟在一个名词后,去掉后主句仍完整 | who / whom / whose / which / that / where / when / why |
| 状语从句 | 修饰整句 | 表时间、原因、条件、让步、结果 | when / because / if / although / so … that |
定语从句的 that / which / where 选择(最高频的错点):
先行词是人 → who / whom / that
先行词是物 → which / that
从句缺宾语 → 可省略关系词
从句缺状语(地点) → where(= 介词 + which)
从句缺状语(时间) → when
介词提前 → 只能用 which / whom(不能用 that,也不能省)
非限制性从句 → 只能用 which / who(不能用 that,逗号隔开)五、非谓语动词:三种形式,三种角色
| 形式 | 含义 | 例 |
|---|---|---|
| 不定式 to do | 目的、将来、一次性 | To reduce latency, we cached the results. |
| 动名词 doing | 一般性、习惯、抽象 | Caching the results reduced latency. |
| 分词 | doing(主动/进行);done(被动/完成) | Having cached the results, we measured latency again. |
独立主格是分词结构的变体,自带逻辑主语:All things considered, the design is sound.
判断口诀:句子已有谓语,再出现的动词形式就必须是非谓语。一个句子只能有一个谓语动词(并列谓语除外)。
六、一致性、倒装、强调、省略
- 主谓一致:
each/every/either/neither + 单数;a number of + 复数动词(the number of + 单数);data在学术写作中常作复数 - 就近一致:
either … or/neither … nor/not only … but also按最近的主语定单复数 - 倒装:否定词提前(
Never have I seen …)、only 提前(Only then did we realize …)、虚拟条件省略 if(Had I known …) - 强调:
It is X that …、do/does/did + 动词原形(The test did fail.) - 省略:并列句省略重复部分;比较句省略(
than expected= than it was expected)
示例
例 1:长难句实战切分
原句:
What the experiment showed was that the model, however well it performs on the training set, fails to generalise to data collected from a different distribution.
① 主句骨架:主系表结构 —— What ... was that ...
主语:What the experiment showed(名词性从句作主语)
谓语:was(系动词)
表语:that the model ... fails to generalise ...(名词性从句作表语)
② 插入成分:however well it performs on the training set
—— 让步状语从句,整体划掉不影响骨架
③ 修饰:collected from a different distribution
—— 过去分词短语后置修饰 data还原:
实验所表明的是:这个模型——无论它在训练集上表现多好——
都无法泛化到从不同分布采集的数据上。例 2:定语从句连接词选择
| 句子 | 选择 | 理由 |
|---|---|---|
| The server ___ crashed is back online. | that / which | 先行词是物,从句缺主语 |
| The file ___ we deleted was locked. | that / which / (省略) | 从句缺宾语,可省 |
| The lab ___ the tests were run is closed. | where / in which | 从句缺地点状语 |
| The day ___ we deployed was a Friday. | when / on which | 从句缺时间状语 |
| The engineer ___ designed it left. | who / that | 先行词是人 |
| The tool, ___ was released last year, is fast. | which | 非限制性,不能用 that |
例 3:虚拟语气三型对比
与现在相反:If the cache were large enough, the miss rate would drop.
(事实上缓存不够大,现在miss率仍高)
与过去相反:If we had profiled the code, we would have found the leak.
(事实上当时没做profiling,也没发现泄漏)
与将来相反:If the workload were to double, the node would fail.
(事实上负载不会翻倍,或只是假设)
省略if倒装:Had we profiled the code, we would have found the leak.例 4:中英差异对照(写作易错点)
| 中文习惯 | 英文正确形式 | 差异点 |
|---|---|---|
| 我昨天去过图书馆了。 | I went to the library yesterday. | 明确过去时间用一般过去,不用完成时 |
| 因为下雨,所以比赛取消了。 | The match was cancelled because of the rain. | 英文不能"因为…所以…"两个连词同现 |
| 虽然他很累,但他继续工作。 | Although he was tired, he kept working. | 不能同时用 although 与 but |
| 这本书我读过了。 | I have read this book. | 主语位置与话题前置不同 |
| 他建议我们早点走。 | He suggested that we (should) leave early. | suggest 后接虚拟,不能接 to do |
要点
要点与常见误区
- 一个句子只能有一个谓语动词:出现第二个动词形式就必须非谓语化(to do / doing / done),这是长难句分析的第一条纪律。
- 完成时看"影响",不是看"完成":
have done的落点往往在现在。 - 从句缺状语才用 where/when,缺主语或宾语用 which/that——很多人不看从句成分,只看先行词就选,必错。
- 非限制性定语从句永远不用 that,且不可省略关系词。
- although 与 but / because 与 so 不能同现:中文的成对连词在英文里只能留一个。
- suggest / demand / insist / require 后接虚拟:(should) + 动词原形,不是 to do。
a number of用复数动词,the number of用单数动词。data在学术语域通常作复数:These data suggest …(日常英语可作单数,但要全文一致)。- 虚拟语气里 be 一律用 were:If I were you …(
was在正式写作中避用)。 - 不要把"语法"当翻译规则:中英语序不同(定语位置、状语位置、话题前置),逐词对译必然出错;正确顺序是先读骨架,再按中文习惯重组。
小结
- 句法的根只有五种基本句型;所有长句都是"基本句型 + 修饰"。
- 时态是时间 × 体两个维度的交叉,别当 16 条规则背;完成时重在影响。
- 三大从句的判断法:名词性从句可整体换成 it / 定语从句去掉后主句仍完整 / 状语从句修饰整句。
- 定语从句选连接词看从句缺什么成分,不是看先行词是什么。
- 非谓语三种:不定式=目的将来、动名词=抽象习惯、分词=主动/被动;独立主格是分词自带主语。
- 写作最易错的四对:完成时与过去时、although 与 but、which 与 where、suggest 后的虚拟。
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